History of Turkey: Discoveries and Developments

Published on October 4, 2025 and written by Cyril Jarnias

Located at the crossroads of two continents, Turkey’s millennia-old history is a fascinating narrative of intertwined civilizations and ever-evolving cultures. From the remnants of the Hittites to the imposing legacy of the Ottoman Empire, this land stands as a silent witness to Greco-Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic influences that shaped its complex identity.

Today, as a modern republic, Turkey continues to develop while preserving its deep-rooted traditions and rich mosaic of diversity. Let yourself be drawn into a captivating journey to the heart of this land where East meets West, exploring its historical, social, and cultural dynamics that still resonate through its landscapes, monuments, and people.

From Origins to the Emergence of Modern Turkey

Major Historical Periods Leading to Modern Turkey

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman the Magnificent. Subsequently, a series of less competent sultans and failing centralization gradually weakened imperial power.

• The sultan’s authority eroded in favor of the grand vizier, undermining political cohesion.
• Military reforms (devşirme and janissaries) disrupted traditional balances, reducing the influence of the Turkish nobility and depriving the state of significant fiscal resources.

Tanzîmât Reforms (19th Century)

The Tanzîmât (“reorganization”) refers to a broad modernization movement between 1839 and 1876 aimed at adapting the empire’s political, legal, and administrative structures:

• Abolition of traditional tax privileges
• Reform of the judicial system
• Legal equality for all subjects
• Military modernization inspired by European models

Domain	Measures Taken
Administration	Increased centralization
Justice	New civil code
Military	Recruitment & training
Taxation	Tax standardization

Despite these efforts, power remained contested by various social groups; some elites demanded greater autonomy or a constitution.

World War I & Dissolution

Aligned with the Central Powers during World War I, the Ottoman Empire suffered several decisive military defeats.

From 1918 onward, it was gradually dismantled by the Allied powers. Turkish nationalists rejected the Treaty of Sèvres, which planned its partition.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk: Foundation and Modernization

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk organized the national resistance during the Turkish War of Independence (1919-1922).

In October 1923, the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed, with Ankara as its capital.

• Abolition of the caliphate (1924)
• Establishment of a strictly secular state: complete separation of religion and state
• Adoption of the Swiss civil code replacing Islamic law
• Introduction of universal male and then female suffrage; civil rights extended to women
• Language reform with a switch to a Latin-based alphabet instead of the Ottoman Arabic script
• Massive development of a modern public education system

Axis	Concrete Examples
Political	Limited multi-party system
Social	Right to education for all
Economic	Supported industrialization

Political and Social Challenges in the Early Decades

• Religious opposition to rapid secularization
• Multiple attempted military coups in response to internal political tensions or emerging multi-party politics (1960s-1980s)

Contemporary Evolution of Turkish National Identity

Modern Turkish identity is built around the following principles:

• Institutional secularism despite a partially conservative society on certain religious aspects.
• Primacy given to the “Kemalist legacy” but growing contestation since the 2000s with a relative return of religious influence in some public spaces.
• Regional diplomatic assertion while maintaining a balance between Western/modernizing heritage and Anatolian/Ottoman particularisms.

The trajectory toward “modern Turkey” thus oscillates between the revolutionary continuity inherited from Atatürk—centered on national unity—and successive adaptations to internal social changes as well as contemporary geopolitical challenges.

From the Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic

The Ottoman Empire, founded in the late 13th century, dominated a vast region stretching from Southeastern Europe to North Africa and the Middle East, with Constantinople (Istanbul) as its capital from 1453. At its peak under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566), it represented the primary political, military, and economic power of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. The empire was distinguished by its religious and ethnic diversity as well as a decentralized administrative system that ensured its longevity.

Key Structural Elements of Ottoman Influence

• Control of trade routes between Europe and Asia.
• Administrative model based on millets (autonomous religious communities).
• Cultural influence blending Turkish, Arab, Persian, and European elements.
• Capitulations granted to Western powers to foster trade.

Decline and Decadence

The decadence began in the 17th century with a series of internal crises (political, financial), military defeats against European powers (notably the failed siege of Vienna in 1683 and the Peace of Karlowitz in 1699), and the rise of nationalism in the Balkans. The weakening continued throughout the 19th century under the weight of:

• Wars against Russia.
• Gradual territorial losses in the Balkans.
• Armenian, Arab, or Greek independence movements.

Key Events Leading to Dissolution

Date	Key Event	Main Impact
1878	Congress of Berlin	Massive loss of Balkan territories
1908	Young Turk Revolution	Limited constitutionalization
1912–1913	Balkan Wars	New territorial losses
1914–1918	World War I	Total defeat
October 1918	Armistice of Mudros	Official end of hostilities
August 1920	Treaty of Sèvres	Planned dismemberment

In the aftermath of the world conflict: The dismantling was accelerated by foreign occupations—including that of Istanbul—while a national resistance led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk developed.

Atatürk’s Role in the Republican Foundation

• Organization of a nationalist movement from Samsun in May 1919 and then Ankara.
• Military victory against Greek forces during the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922).

Major Dates of the Transition

• Abolition of the sultanate: November 1922
• Official proclamation: Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923
• Abolition of the caliphate: March 1924

Atatürk’s Modernizing Reforms

Political

• Establishment of a parliamentary republican regime
• Adoption of a secular constitution
• Suppression of Sufi religious orders

Social

• Complete replacement of Islamic law with a civil code inspired by the Swiss one
• Clothing restrictions to symbolize a break with Ottoman tradition (e.g., mandatory wearing of Western hats)
• Mass introduction of education for girls/boys

Economic

• Partial nationalization of key banks/infrastructure
• Industrial incentives; creation of large public enterprises

Major Effects on Turkish Society

• Abrupt transition to a centralized nation-state based on Turkish language/culture
• Deep secularization of state and educational institutions
• Persistent tensions between defenders of Islamic tradition and supporters of Kemalist reforms

Notable Figures

• Mustafa Kemal Atatürk – founding leader & first president
• İsmet İnönü – military/political right-hand man during the independence war and later presidential successor

The period thus marks a radical break with centuries of Ottoman imperial heritage to forge a new modern state seeking its identity between East and West.

Colonial Influences and Historical Dominations

The territory of present-day Turkey has experienced several major periods of foreign domination, each leaving deep marks on its cultural, economic, and political development.

Main Periods of Domination and Foreign Influences:

• Antiquity:
  • Hittite, Persian, Greek, then Roman domination over Anatolia.
  • The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) made Constantinople a radiant capital.
• Byzantine Empire (4th–15th century):
  • Christian Orthodox domination over the region.
  • Urban and architectural development (churches, palaces).
  • Transmission of Roman law and lasting influence on administration.
• Seljuk then Ottoman Turkish Conquest (11th–15th century):
  • Gradual arrival of Turks from Central Asia.
  • Final fall of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II.

Empire/Power	Approximate Period	Main Influence
Hittites/Persians/Greeks/Romans	Antiquity	Ancient urbanism, religious syncretism
Byzantines	4th–15th c.	Orthodoxy, administrative centralization
Seljuks	11th–13th c.	Gradual introduction of Islam
Ottomans	15th–early 20th c.	Profound Islamization, imperial centralization

Impact of the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires:

Cultural:

• Byzantine heritage visible in monuments like Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.
• The Ottomans transformed the city into a multicultural crossroads; partial coexistence between Muslims, Christians, and Jews.
• Artistic richness: Ottoman calligraphy, monumental mosques.

Economic:

• Strategic control of trade routes between East and West under both empires.
• Spectacular urban growth of Istanbul under the Ottomans.

Political:

• Extreme centralization of power, but also relative autonomy for certain religious communities under the millet system among the Ottomans.

Role of European Powers from the 18th Century:

Increasing economic pressures via external debts contracted by the Sublime Porte from Western European states.

Direct or indirect military interventions during the “Great Game” with Russia or in the Balkan Wars.

After World War I:

• Allied occupation of Istanbul (1918–1923), planned dismemberment via the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920.
• Direct involvement in the final Ottoman decline and the projected partition of Turkish territory post-war.

Birth of the Modern Turkish Republic:

Summary list of key steps:

• War of Independence led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against Greeks then Western Allies.
• Signing of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), definitively setting modern national borders.
• Official proclamation of the Republic with Ankara as capital; rapid adoption of secular institutions inspired by Western Europe.

Major Contemporary Traces Left by These Multiple Dominations:

Non-exhaustive list:

• Architectural heritage blending Byzantine churches transformed into Ottoman mosques;
• Fusion cuisine derived from Greek/Balkan as well as Arab-Persian origins;
• Persistent ethnic plurality despite homogenizing policies in the 20th century;
• Modern republican institutions, heirs to both French Jacobinism promoted by Atatürk and certain administrative frameworks inherited from Byzantines/Ottomans;
• Public space marked by both Islamic and Western symbols (official secularism vs. varied social practices);
• Geopolitical dynamics where an ambivalent relationship persists towards both Europe and the Arab-Muslim world—a direct reflection of a multi-century past shared between Eastern and Western influences.

Current sociopolitical dynamics are still shaped by this dual imperial heritage—oscillating between Islamo-nationalist conservatism stemming notably from the Ottoman legacy, and secular aspiration largely inspired by the European model imported in the early 20th century.