The economic rise of Serbia, its relatively mild taxation, and preferential access to over a billion consumers make it a serious base for establishing a presence in Southeast Europe today. But before opening a bank account, renting an office, or hiring staff, one question dominates all others: which legal status should you choose for your company in Serbia?
The choice of legal structure for an activity in Serbia has major practical consequences, including personal liability, level of taxation, administrative formalities, management costs, and access to grants. It also influences the image projected to partners and banks. Serbian law offers a wide range of structures, suitable both for self-employed individuals testing a market and for large industrial groups establishing a subsidiary.
This article provides a clear and operational mapping of the main possible statuses, with their strengths, weaknesses, and typical uses, to help you make an informed choice.
A Favorable Yet Structured Business Environment
Before delving into the details of legal forms, it is useful to understand the framework in which they operate. Serbia functions on a civil law model, with a Companies Act (Company Law / Law on Business Entities) governing all legal forms, and a central agency, the Business Registers Agency (SBRA / APR), which acts as a one-stop shop for registrations.
A company only exists legally from the date of its registration in the APR register. Since 2023, the procedure is fully digital: incorporations of companies (d.o.o., a.d., o.d., k.d.) are done exclusively online with an electronic signature via the Agency’s portal.
The macroeconomic environment is attractive to foreign investors: GDP growth around 3–4%, stock of foreign direct investment estimated at over $40 billion, corporate income tax rate of 15% – one of the lowest in Europe – and generous investment support schemes (grants per job created, 10-year exemptions for large projects exceeding 1 billion dinars and 100 jobs, pro-R&D schemes, IP box regime, etc.).
Serbia allows 100% foreign ownership without the obligation to have a local partner and applies national treatment to non-resident investors. Thus, a subsidiary wholly owned by a foreign company (e.g., French, Swiss, or Canadian) is legally considered a local company for most aspects.
In this context, the choice of legal status primarily depends on the size of the project, the level of risk accepted, and the relationship with a potential “parent company” abroad.
Overview of Major Available Statuses
Serbian law provides a common foundation of corporate forms, to which specific modalities for foreign entities (branch office, representative office) and “light” options for self-employed individuals are added.
Main Forms Provided by Serbian Law
The four “classic” forms of companies are:
| Form | Serbian Name | Abbreviation | Legal Personality | Minimum Share Capital |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Limited Liability Company | društvo sa ograničenom odgovornošću | d.o.o. / doo | Yes | 100 RSD (≈ €1) |
| Joint Stock Company | akcionarsko društvo | a.d. | Yes | 3,000,000 RSD (≈ €25,500) |
| General Partnership | ortačko društvo | o.d. / od | Yes | No minimum |
| Limited Partnership | komanditno društvo | k.d. | Yes | No minimum |
To these forms are added two important modalities for individuals or foreign companies:
– the sole proprietor (preduzetnik), equivalent to a self-employed individual / sole proprietorship,
– the branch office and representative office of a foreign company.
Each legal structure (sole proprietorship, LLC, JSC, etc.) presents a specific trade-off between four major criteria: the level of liability of the manager, the applicable tax regime, management and administrative costs, and the image or credibility perceived by clients and partners. The choice should therefore be made by comparing these aspects according to the needs and situation of the project.
The Sole Proprietor: The Simplest Entry Point
For a self-employed individual, a consultant, or a small e‑commerce business, the most direct option is registration as a sole proprietor (preduzetnik). This is a natural person who registers with the Business Registers Agency to carry out a lucrative activity.
Legally, the business is not distinct from the person: there is no new legal entity. This is both an advantage in terms of simplicity and a risk in terms of liability.
The sole proprietor can choose between two main tax regimes: lump-sum taxation (paušalac) for eligible small incomes, and accounting with taxation on actual profit.
The Lump-Sum Regime (paušalac): Ultra-Simplified Taxation
Lump-sum taxation involves paying a fixed monthly tax determined in advance by the tax authorities, based on the activity, location, and other criteria. Regardless of the actual income, the tax remains the same, as long as certain conditions are met.
A few reference points:
To benefit from the lump-sum advance tax in Serbia, the business must have annual turnover below 6,000,000 RSD (approximately €50,000–51,000). This regime excludes certain activities such as wholesale or retail trade, hospitality, finance, or real estate. The application must be made upon the business registration.
In practice, the observed monthly amounts have been around €200–250 per month in recent years for certain profiles (e.g., in 2019 and 2022), with a turnover ceiling of around €50,000–51,000 annually.
This regime has several particularities:
– The sole proprietor does not keep full accounting: they only maintain a simple book of receipts (KPO),
– They are not required to hire an accountant,
– In return, they cannot be subject to VAT: it is therefore impossible to recover VAT on purchases.
For an IT consultant, a graphic designer, or a service provider with few expenses and working mainly with local B2C clients or non-taxable entities, this regime offers a very attractive effort/taxation ratio.
The Sole Proprietor “on Actual Profit”: Taxation on Profit
Beyond 6 million dinars in turnover, or by choice from the outset, the sole proprietor switches to bookkeeping: they are then taxed at 10% on their profit (income – expenses). Their result is added to their total income for personal income tax.
They must:
– Keep accounting records (simple or, increasingly, double-entry),
– Declare their profit,
– and Pay their social contributions (pension, health, unemployment).
If you are a sole proprietor and already employed elsewhere, your status allows for adjustments to contributions. You will only pay the pension contribution on your sole proprietorship activity, as your main employment already covers health and unemployment protections.
The Downside: Unlimited Liability
Where the sole proprietor finds its limit is on liability. They are personally liable for all business debts with their entire personal assets. For tax debts, this liability can even extend to the assets of adult members of their household.
Furthermore, regarding control, the authorities have implemented a “test of independence” with nine criteria since 2020 to prevent bogus self-employed individuals from operating as disguised employees. A sole proprietor who depends almost exclusively on a single client and meets too many criteria of the test risks reclassification and additional tax. This test does not apply to companies (d.o.o.).
For this reason, many freelancers, especially in IT, start as a preduzetnik under the lump-sum regime, then switch to the limited liability company form once their activity stabilizes or they reach higher volumes.
The Limited Liability Company (d.o.o.): The Standard Tool… for Almost Everyone
The dominant form in Serbia, used by both local startups and subsidiaries of international groups, is the društvo sa ograničenom odgovornošću, abbreviated d.o.o.
Why the d.o.o. Dominates the Landscape
Several reasons explain the success of this form:
– It is legally autonomous: the company has its own legal personality,
– The liability of shareholders is limited to their contributions, except for clear abuse (using the company to defraud creditors, commingling of assets, etc.),
– The minimum share capital is purely symbolic: 100 RSD, or less than €1,
– Shareholders can be natural or legal persons, Serbian or foreign, and ownership can be up to 100% by non-residents,
– It is flexible enough for small structures (a single shareholder, a single director) as well as for group subsidiaries.
The capital can be paid in within five years after incorporation, in cash (in dinars or convertible currency) or in kind (equipment, intellectual property rights, real estate, etc.). Contributions in kind can be valued by agreement of the shareholders or by an independent expert; in case of proven overvaluation, creditors can challenge it and demand additional cash contributions.
The maximum number of shareholders allowed in a company before it must transform into a joint stock company if this threshold is exceeded for more than one year.
Governance and Operation
The d.o.o. must have at least one director, a natural person, who represents the company. This director can be a foreigner and does not need to be a Serbian resident to be appointed, although local presence is often preferable for banking relationships and daily management.
The shareholders constitute the Assembly, the supreme body that approves the financial statements, appoints and dismisses directors, decides on capital increases, statutory changes, or potential liquidation.
In principle:
– Voting rights and profit distribution follow the share in the capital,
– Decisions are made by simple majority (50% plus one vote), unless the articles of association provide otherwise for sensitive decisions (e.g., 2/3 of votes for a merger).
The company chooses between a monistic governance system (Assembly + director(s)) or a dualistic one (Assembly + supervisory board + director(s)). In most small and medium-sized structures, a monistic system with one or two directors is sufficient.
Taxation of a d.o.o.
The d.o.o. is subject to corporate income tax at a rate of 15% on its taxable profit, calculated from the accounting result adjusted by tax rules (reintegration of non-deductible expenses, treatment of capital gains, etc.). Losses can be carried forward for five fiscal years.
Dividends paid to shareholders are subject to a separate withholding tax, different from the taxation on the company’s profits.
| Situation of the Beneficial Shareholder | Tax on Dividends |
|---|---|
| Person resident in Serbia | 15% |
| Non-resident company, country without treaty | 20% withholding at source |
| Resident of a privileged tax jurisdiction | 25% |
| Resident of a country with a tax treaty | Reduced rate per treaty |
Serbia has signed over 60 double taxation treaties, covering most European countries as well as partners like China, Russia, or the United States, which often allows for a reduction in withholding tax on dividends, interest, or royalties.
Important point: Profits retained in the company are not taxed personally for the shareholders. Only distribution (dividends) triggers personal income tax on investment income or withholding tax for non-residents.
VAT, Social Charges, and Accounting Obligations
A d.o.o. must maintain double-entry bookkeeping and file its annual financial statements with the APR, prepared according to Serbian or IFRS standards. Above a certain threshold (€4.4 million in turnover, or status as a large/medium enterprise), a statutory audit is mandatory.
Regarding VAT:
Key information on Value Added Tax (VAT) in Serbia, including rates, registration thresholds, and voluntary registration options.
The standard VAT rate in Serbia is 20%.
A reduced rate of 10% applies to certain essential goods like bread, milk, fruit, meat, or newspapers.
VAT registration becomes mandatory when turnover exceeds 8,000,000 RSD over a 12-month period.
Voluntary registration is possible for economic reasons, such as to facilitate B2B work or recover VAT on investments.
Regarding social charges, contributions are shared between employer and employee; overall, the total social cost is around 35–36% of gross salary (adding what both employer and employee pay). A founder-director performing management functions must contribute at least on a minimum basis.
When to Choose a d.o.o. Over Remaining a Sole Proprietor
The shift to a company makes full sense in several typical cases:
– Risky activity (large contracts, significant potential liability): limited liability is a real shield,
– Scaling up: turnover that exceeds or nears the ceiling of the sole proprietor’s lump-sum regime,
– Need to bring in partners, open up capital, or welcome investors,
– Desire to clearly separate professional and personal finances (a key argument for banks and investors),
– International growth plans (it is simpler to sign important contracts through a d.o.o. than as a natural person).
For a foreign investor looking to establish a permanent activity in Serbia, the d.o.o. is, in the vast majority of cases, the basic form to consider.
The Joint Stock Company (a.d.): The Tool for Major Operations
At the other end of the scale, the akcionarsko društvo (a.d.) is the vehicle for large enterprises, particularly those considering a stock exchange listing or a very dispersed shareholder base.
There are two sub‑categories:
| Type of Joint Stock Company | Number of Shareholders | Minimum Capital |
|---|---|---|
| Closed joint stock company (non-public) | ≤ 100 | €10,000 (or equivalent) |
| Open joint stock company (public) | > 100, potentially listed shares | €25,500 (≈ 3,000,000 RSD) |
Only shares of “open” companies can be registered on the stock exchange and used to raise capital on the market.
The capital of 3,000,000 RSD must be subscribed, and at least 25% must be paid up before registration, with a deposit into a temporary bank account in Serbia. Shares are obligatorily numbered, with a minimum nominal value of 100 RSD.
a.d. companies follow a denser set of governance rules:
– Monistic option (Assembly + Board of Directors) or dualistic (Assembly + Supervisory Board + Management Board),
– Obligation to have an audit committee for public joint stock companies,
– Mandatory annual audit,
– Publication obligations (financial statements, meeting notices, voting results, etc.),
– Regulation of transactions with related parties, public takeover bids, changes of control, etc.
In practice, this status is intended for major industrial projects, banks, insurance companies, or groups wanting to structure a regional presence via a Serbian platform, rather than for SMEs or mid-cap subsidiaries.
Partnerships (o.d. and k.d.): A Niche for Structures Based on Strong Trust
Alongside capital-based forms, Serbian law recognizes two types of partnerships:
– the ortačko društvo (o.d.) or general partnership;
– the komanditno društvo (k.d.) or limited partnership.
In a General Partnership (GP), all partners are jointly and severally liable for the debts of the business with all their personal assets. No minimum capital is required. By default, decisions are made unanimously, each partner having one vote, and profits are shared equally, unless the articles of association state otherwise.
In a limited partnership, there is at least one general partner with unlimited liability, and one or more limited partners, whose liability is limited to their contribution. Profits and losses are distributed according to shares, unless otherwise agreed.
These two forms remain marginal for foreign investors but can suit associations of professionals wanting a simple and transparent tool,… and who accept almost total solidarity among themselves (case of certain firms or niche structures).
Branch or Subsidiary: The Right Vehicle for a Foreign Company
Once a parent company abroad decides to establish itself in Serbia, the real alternative is less between d.o.o. and a.d. than between subsidiary and branch.
The Subsidiary (in the form of a d.o.o.): The Autonomous “Daughter Company” Solution
The subsidiary is simply a d.o.o. whose main (sometimes sole) shareholder is the foreign company. It is an independent legal entity, even if controlled by its parent.
Its key characteristics:
– It has its own legal personality: it concludes contracts in its own name, holds its own assets, hires its own staff,
– The parent company is not liable for its debts, except for specific guarantees or abuse of law,
– It is taxed on its worldwide income at 15%,
– It is subject to all local rules (accounting, filing of accounts, VAT, social contributions, etc.),
– It can, under conditions, benefit from major tax incentives (corporate tax exemption for 10 years if investment > 1 billion RSD and at least 100 jobs, innovation tax credits, etc.).
Threshold in number of employees for a large subsidiary to benefit from a 10-year tax exemption.
In return, setting up a subsidiary is a bit heavier than a branch:
– The company must be duly incorporated (founding act, APR registration, own bank account, social registrations, etc.),
– Operational management must be local,
– A legal representative must be appointed.
But it is generally the recommended choice as soon as one wants a lasting establishment, to hire local staff, sign leases, or hold real estate assets.
The Branch Office: An Extension of the Parent Company
The branch office (filijala / branch office) is, however, a permanent establishment without legal personality. It acts “on behalf and in the name of” the foreign company. Under Serbian law, it is a distinct organizational unit, with its own identification number and tax number, but legally attached to its founder.
Some practical consequences:
The parent company is fully liable for the debts of its branch, which has no share capital of its own and depends financially on transfers. For its activity in Serbia, the branch, considered a tax resident taxed at 15% on its local profits, must use a local bank account and generally cannot own real estate. No dividend tax applies to the repatriation of profits, unless the parent company is established in a tax haven.
The branch must:
To operate legally in Serbia, a foreign company must: register with the Business Registers Agency (APR) by providing an apostilled and translated extract of the commercial register (K-bis or equivalent); appoint a legal representative in the territory (non-residence is possible, but a local representative is often preferable); maintain local accounting and file its annual financial statements with the APR; and, as a “resident,” make specific declarations to the National Bank of Serbia, particularly for intra-group loans.
It can conduct import-export operations without limitation, within the framework of foreign trade and exchange control laws, but can only carry out the activities of its parent company (in practice, the main focus may differ slightly, but the core business must remain consistent).
The closure procedure is more flexible than for a subsidiary: there is no minimum duration before striking off, but a certificate of no tax debts must be obtained before removal from the register.
Subsidiary or Branch: How to Decide?
The trade-off can be summarized in the following table:
| Criterion | Subsidiary (d.o.o. owned by the parent) | Branch |
|---|---|---|
| Legal Personality | Yes, separate entity | No, mere unit of the parent |
| Liability | Limited to share capital | Unlimited at the parent level |
| Taxation | 15% on the subsidiary’s worldwide profit | 15% on Serbian profit only |
| Dividends / Repatriation | Subject to withholding tax (unless treaty) | No withholding on profit repatriation |
| Assets | Can own real estate, patents, etc. | Uses parent’s assets; no own real estate ownership |
| Setup Cost | Higher (full incorporation) | Lighter (parent’s decision + registration) |
| Market / Bank Perception | Stronger appearance of local anchoring | Seen as a direct extension of the parent |
| Eligibility for Investment Grants | Yes, under conditions | More complex / less direct |
| Group Confidentiality | Subsidiary’s own accounts | Accounts integrated with parent’s |
For a group wanting to test the market with a small sales office without the trouble of creating a full entity, the branch is an option. For an industrial activity, complex services, or an activity requiring securing the group’s liability, the subsidiary quickly becomes preferable.
The Representative Office: Market Prospecting Without Trading
Alongside the branch is the representative office. This is also a unit without legal personality, but its scope is even more limited:
A representative office in Serbia is limited to preparatory or auxiliary activities (marketing, market research, etc.). It cannot issue invoices, conclude sales in its own name, nor have its own bank account in the territory, using that of its parent company. It is not subject to corporate income tax and has no obligation to file accounts, provided it does not carry out any commercial activity.
However, the parent company remains liable for any potential commitments, and must finance all its expenses. This structure is therefore suited for a “showcase” presence or a market approach phase.
Status, Taxation, and Charges: What Does Each Option Really Weigh?
To choose a status, it is not enough to compare only liability. Tax, social, and administrative implications must be integrated from the start.
Overview of Key Tax Rates
| Nature of Tax / Charge | Main Rate / Threshold |
|---|---|
| Corporate Income Tax (d.o.o., a.d., branch) | 15% on profit |
| Income Tax on Business Activity (sole proprietor) | 10% on profit (actual regime) |
| Lump-Sum (paušalac) | Fixed monthly amount, condition: turnover < 6,000,000 RSD |
| VAT standard rate | 20% |
| VAT reduced rate | 10% on certain basic goods |
| VAT Registration Threshold | 8,000,000 RSD turnover over 12 months |
| Dividend Tax (resident individual) | 15% |
| Dividend Withholding Tax (non-resident without treaty) | 20% (25% to privileged tax jurisdictions) |
| Capital Gains (companies) | 15% (resident); 20% (non-resident, unless treaty) |
| Total Social Charges (employer + employee) | ≈ 35–36% of gross |
Combining these figures, it quickly becomes clear that for a sole proprietor, a lump-sum regime can result in a lower overall levy than a d.o.o. if turnover remains modest and expenses are limited. Conversely, as soon as there are several employees, large investments, entry of investors, or risk management, the capital-based company becomes much more relevant.
Setup and Operating Costs
Typical startup costs in Serbia remain contained:
Detail of main expenses to plan for when incorporating a company, including administrative procedures and ancillary services.
A few dozen euros (approximately 4,900 RSD) for company registration.
From €300 to €400 for a simple setup (notary, certified translations, legal assistance). Higher for complex operations.
Cost from €100 to €500 for the director, varying by provider.
Rental of an address or virtual office from €50 per month.
Generally free or costing a few hundred euros maximum.
Recurring costs focus on accounting (€150–500 per month depending on company size) and payroll (€15–30 per employee per month via an agency). A sole proprietor on a lump-sum, however, can do without an accountant if they have no employees, adding further to the attractiveness of this regime for very small structures.
Beyond the Law: Legal Status and Development Strategy
The “right” status is not only the one that optimizes tax in the first year. It must fit into the trajectory of your project.
Testing the Market vs. Establishing a Lasting Presence
For a freelancer or a micro-structure that simply wants to invoice a few projects in Serbia, or obtain a residence permit through business creation, the sole proprietor (possibly on a lump-sum) is a good starting point. Creation is quick, formalities are light, closure is simple.
From the moment the challenge is to:
– hire employees,
– sign long-term commercial leases,
– take out loans,
– invest in heavy equipment,
– welcome partners or investors,
The transformation into a d.o.o. (limited liability company) is often necessary. Its main advantages are the clear separation of personal and professional assets, the use of more comprehensible legal language for international partners, and eligibility for major grant and subsidy schemes.
For a foreign group, the real question is almost never “sole proprietor” vs. “d.o.o.”, but “subsidiary” vs. “branch”. If the project is limited, temporary, exploratory and the parent company accepts unlimited liability, a branch may suffice. Otherwise, the subsidiary remains the norm.
Access to Incentives and Financing
Investment support schemes (grants between €2,000 and €10,000 per job created in services, production, or R&D, 10-year corporate tax exemptions for large projects, innovation tax credits) are aimed at companies – typically d.o.o. or a.d. – and not at sole proprietors.
To enter into financing discussions with local banks or international funds, opting for a company-type structure (with established accounts, defined governance, and clear limitation of liability) is seen as a signal of seriousness and professionalism.
Anticipating European Evolution
Serbia is engaged in an EU accession process. Even if the entry date remains uncertain, company law, taxation, and governance are gradually converging towards European and OECD standards (transfer pricing rules, CbCR documentation, strengthening of directors’ duties, future EU directive on sustainable due diligence, etc.).
Choosing a structure “aligned” with this future environment, and implementing strong governance practices from the start (annual meetings, documentation of decisions, rigorous management of conflicts of interest), facilitates adaptation to future changes.
How to Structure Your Choice Concretely
To turn these elements into an operational decision, it is useful to ask a few very concrete questions.
– 1. What is your expected turnover level in 3 years?
– Under €50,000 with few expenses and no employees, the lump-sum sole proprietor may suffice.
– Beyond that, a company often becomes more relevant.
– 2. What is your level of risk (contractual, technical, financial)?
– If the amounts involved or risks of litigation are significant, the unlimited liability of a sole proprietor or partner in an o.d. becomes difficult to accept.
– 3. Do you intend to welcome capital partners?
– If yes, the d.o.o. is essential; shareholders’ rights (vote, dividends, exit) are easier to organize.
For a foreign parent company developing a project in France, the strategic dilemma is often between creating a subsidiary or a branch. This trade-off is based on the balance between operational simplicity, the extent of legal liability, and the tax implications of each structure.
– 5. Do you plan to apply for public investment grants?
– If yes, structuring as a company (often a d.o.o.) is an almost systematic prerequisite.
– 6. Is Serbia a production / export base to other markets?
– In this case, the company status, combined with free trade agreements (EU, CEFTA, EFTA, Russia, Turkey, China…), allows maximizing the use of these agreements.
In all cases, one step is essential: confront your actual project with the legal texts, with a local advisor (lawyer, tax specialist, accountant) who masters not only the law but also the practice of the authorities (APR, tax, National Bank).
Conclusion: A Choice That Is Both Legal, Tax… and Strategic
Choosing the right legal status for your company in Serbia is not a simple matter of filling out a form. It is a global trade-off between protecting your assets, the level of taxation and charges, credibility towards your partners, and your medium-term ambitions.
To simplify:
The sole proprietor suits the self-employed individual looking for a light framework to start or test the market, especially with the lump-sum regime. The d.o.o. is the “Swiss Army knife” of Serbian businesses, suited to the majority of serious projects, whether local or driven by a foreign group. The a.d. targets large companies with many shareholders or stock market ambitions. Partnerships (o.d., k.d.) remain niche tools for very specific associations. Finally, the branch and representative office are presence options for foreign companies wanting to test or coordinate a market without immediately creating a full-fledged subsidiary.
In a country where business administration is largely digitalized, where entry costs remain low, and where investment incentives are substantial, Serbia offers rare room for maneuver to precisely tailor your status to your strategy. The key is not to focus solely on the first year, but to choose a form that will remain relevant when your activity reaches its cruising speed.
A 45-year-old French business owner, experienced, with well-structured financial assets in Europe, wanted to diversify his activities by creating a company in Serbia to optimize his taxation and develop a holding or digital services (IT/tourism) activity, while positioning himself in a high-growth market at the gates of the EU.
Allocated budget: €50,000 to €100,000, covering initial capital, formation costs, and operational setup, without borrowing.
After analyzing several European jurisdictions (Cyprus, Estonia, Serbia), the chosen strategy was to opt for a DOO (limited liability company, equivalent to an LLC), the most common and flexible form for non-residents, with a 15% corporate tax and low-taxed dividends, combining relative administrative simplicity and priority access to the Balkans/EU regional market. The mission included: selection of a promising sector (IT, real estate, or tourism), name verification and drafting of articles of association in Serbian, deposit of capital in a local bank, registration in the commercial register within 7‑15 days, obtaining a Serbian VAT number if necessary, connection with a local network (lawyer, accountant, registered address ~€2500–3000/year) and choice of structure (French or Serbian manager).
This type of support allows the investor to benefit from moderate formation costs (~€2000), qualified labor at competitive cost (charges often significantly lower than in France) while controlling risks (language barrier, regulatory changes, Franco-Serbian tax compliance via the double taxation treaty) and integrating this entity into a global wealth diversification or pre-expatriation strategy.
Want to set up a company abroad? Contact us for custom offers.
Disclaimer: The information provided on this website is for informational purposes only and does not constitute financial, legal, or professional advice. We encourage you to consult qualified experts before making any investment, real estate, or expatriation decisions. Although we strive to maintain up-to-date and accurate information, we do not guarantee the completeness, accuracy, or timeliness of the proposed content. As investment and expatriation involve risks, we disclaim any liability for potential losses or damages arising from the use of this site. Your use of this site confirms your acceptance of these terms and your understanding of the associated risks.