Published on and written by Cyril Jarnias
Moving to Kazakhstan, this vast country bridging Europe and Asia, means entering a society that is both highly secularized due to its Soviet legacy and profoundly marked by religion. For an expatriate, religion is not just about mosques, churches, or holidays: it shapes social codes, politeness, certain political choices, and even the way you approach colleagues or neighbors.
This guide offers a clear and neutral overview of religions, based on data and the legal framework. Its goal is to give you reference points to avoid missteps, understand sensitivities, and potentially build deeper connections with your local interlocutors, without making you an expert.
A secular country… but overwhelmingly religious
Kazakhstan is, constitutionally, a secular state. The Constitution proclaims freedom of conscience and states that no religion can be a state religion or compulsory. In practice, however, the majority of the population identifies with a religious tradition, and these affiliations weigh on social life.
According to the 2021 national census, approximately 69.31% of residents identify as Muslim and 17.19% as Christian. A small minority follows other religions (about 0.24%), 2.25% say they have no religion, and over 11% prefer not to declare. In other words, even if the state officially keeps its distance from doctrines, belief remains a widespread identity reference.
A very diverse religious landscape
On paper, Kazakhstan has about forty different denominations, even though the vast majority belong to Islam or Christianity. You will find notably:
Kazakhstan has great religious diversity. Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school, historically linked to national identity, is widely dominant. Christianity is also well represented, mainly in its Russian Orthodox form, but also includes various Catholic and Protestant communities (Baptists, Lutherans, Reformed, Pentecostals, Methodists, Adventists). The country also has Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, and Baha’i minorities. Finally, there are newer or minority movements such as Scientology, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Mormons, as well as revivals of neo-paganism (Tengrism, Slavic paganism).
The authorities speak of “traditional religions” to designate Hanafi Islam, the Russian Orthodox Church, Roman or Greek Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Judaism. Other groups, labeled “non-traditional,” are tolerated but viewed with suspicion, sometimes by the state, often by society.
Geographic and ethnic distribution
The religious dimension strongly overlaps with ethnic and regional affiliations. Ethnic Kazakhs, who make up the vast majority of the overall population, identify as Muslims at a rate of more than 89%. Russians, Ukrainians, and ethnic Germans in the country are overwhelmingly Christian, especially Orthodox for the first group.
Reference year of the census analyzing links between religion and origin.
| Ethnic group | % Muslim | % Christian | % Other / Not stated |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kazakhs | 89.21% | 0.34% | ~10% |
| Russians | 1.96% | 85.52% | ~12% |
| Ukrainians | 2.44% | 78.34% | Remaining |
| Germans | 2.82% | 77.30% | Remaining |
| Koreans | 18.72% | 35.75% | ~45% (including Buddhists) |
Geographically, the south (Turkistan, Kyzylorda, Jambyl regions…) is noticeably more observant and Muslim than the north, where Christians (especially Russians) remain very numerous. For example, the Turkistan region is over 92% Muslim, while North Kazakhstan has a relative Christian majority (over 55%).
Kazakh Islam: a Sunni Islam tinged with nomadic traditions
For an expatriate, Islam deeply structures rhythms and codes, even among people who are not very observant. But it is a specific form of Islam, shaped by centuries of nomadism, shamanism, and coexistence with other beliefs.
A few historical markers
Islam took root in the region from the 9th century, first spreading in the sedentary south, then more slowly in the nomadic steppes. The Turkic Sufi Khoja Ahmad Yasawi, in the 12th century, played a key role in how the faith adapted to local culture: his mausoleum in Turkistan is today a major pilgrimage site, sometimes presented as a kind of “Little Mecca” for Turkic-speaking Muslims.
Under the Russian Empire and then during the Soviet era, authorities alternately controlled and repressed religious practices. From 1928, a vast program of atheization led to mosque closures and persecution of religious leaders. Yet practices persisted within the family sphere: birth rituals, circumcision, marriage, Islamic funerals…
After independence in 1991, the number of mosques went from a few dozen to several thousand, thanks to funding from Turkey, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia, contributing to the creation of a dense network of places of worship.
A central institution: the SAMK
All recognized mosques are affiliated with the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Kazakhstan (SAMK), headed by a Grand Mufti. This body oversees the appointment of imams, official sermons, the organization of the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), and religious education. It is closely linked to political authorities, who rely on it to contain currents deemed extremist.
For an expatriate, this means that: the challenges of adapting to a new cultural, economic, and social environment are numerous. One often has to juggle managing distance from family and friends back home, as well as integrating into a new community.
– mosques are highly institutionalized;
– imams generally deliver a message close to the official “Hanafi traditionalism” line, presented as tolerant and patriotic;
– sermons outside this framework can attract the attention of security services.
Practices and level of religiosity
A portion of Kazakhs define themselves as practicing believers, but many say they are simply attached to major ceremonies and Islamic values, without strictly following daily obligations.
Recent surveys show that about a quarter of the population considers themselves “strictly observant,” while a large majority say they are believers but only observe certain rites. A significant minority never prays or attends a place of worship.
For you, this translates into a contrasting landscape:
In Turkey, religious practices vary considerably by geographic and social background. In large cities, a segment of urban youth, while identifying as Muslim, may adopt more secular lifestyles, such as drinking alcohol or not observing the Ramadan fast. Conversely, in the south or within more conservative families, religious observance is generally more pronounced, with diligent practice of fasting, prayers, and wearing the veil. At the same time, certain cultural and religious rituals remain deeply rooted throughout society, such as circumcision (sünnet), large meals organized for funerals or death anniversaries, and sacrifices during the Eid al-Adha festival.
Islam and pre-Islamic beliefs: an acknowledged syncretism
Many religious practices remain imbued with Tengrism (the ancient religion of the steppes) and shamanism. This can surprise an expatriate accustomed to a more “scriptural” Islam.
One observes, for example: climate variations that influence biodiversity.
– ancestor worship (aruahs), very important: families organize commemorative meals, prepare small ritual breads (jeti shelpek) whose symbolism blends ancient sun cults and references to the “seven heavens” of the Quran;
– local pilgrimages to mausoleums of saints, springs, or sacred mountains (mazars). The mausoleum of Yasawi, that of his master Arystan-Bab, or the site of Beket-Ata in Mangystau, attract many devotees;
– the use of a triangular amulet (tumar), sometimes containing Quranic verses, a pre-Islamic heritage integrated into popular practice;
– purification rituals with fire (alastau), where people or animals are passed near a fire while reciting formulas.
For some more rigorist Islamic currents, these practices are condemnable. But for the majority, they coexist without conflict with prayer, fasting, and the other pillars of Islam.
Islamic currents
Ramadan, Eid, and daily life
During the month of Ramadan, part of the population fasts from dawn to sunset. In major cities, restaurants remain open, but many offer special menus for iftar (breaking the fast) in the evening. It is appreciated, especially in traditional circles, if non-Muslims avoid eating or smoking conspicuously during the day, even though nothing legally requires it.
Eid al-Fitr (end of Ramadan) is celebrated with family meals and visits to relatives, but it is not an official public holiday. However, Eid al-Adha (Kurban Ait) is a public holiday. Families who can afford it sacrifice a sheep or other animal and distribute part of the meat to the less fortunate. In some neighborhoods, it is common to see refrigerated trucks, makeshift animal sale stands, and vans collecting meat for distribution.
For an expatriate, being invited to an Eid meal is a strong sign of integration. You will be expected to taste everything, especially the meat, and to accept at least some tea and beshbarmak, the national dish (boiled meat and pasta).
Christianity: mostly Orthodox, but very diverse
The second major religious family, Christianity, comes in multiple churches. The most visible is undoubtedly the Russian Orthodox Church, closely tied to the history of Tsarist and then Soviet colonization.
Weight of the Orthodox Church
Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, and some Germans or Koreans form the core of the Orthodox community. Before independence, Russians accounted for nearly 38% of the population; today they are around 20%, but remain strongly organized around their parishes.
Organization and territorial presence of the Orthodox Church attached to the Moscow Patriarchate.
Functions as a metropolitan district, organized into nine distinct dioceses.
Very visible presence in the northern and central regions of the country.
Many cities have imposing cathedrals.
Orthodox Christmas, celebrated according to the Julian calendar in early January, is a national public holiday. This is an important marker: in a predominantly Muslim country, granting a non-working day for a Christian holiday illustrates the political will to balance symbols.
Other churches and Christian minorities
Besides Orthodoxy, one finds:
– Catholic communities (historically linked to deportations of Poles, Germans, Ukrainians…) with cathedrals in Astana and Almaty;
– a Protestant spectrum: Baptists, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Methodists, Pentecostals, Adventists, Mennonites…;
– movements such as Jehovah’s Witnesses or Mormons.
Legally, Catholicism and Lutheranism are recognized as “traditional,” which facilitates their relationship with the state. Other groups, especially Evangelicals or Jehovah’s Witnesses, are more often targeted by criticism of “sects” in the media or by administrative checks.
For the expatriate of Christian background, the situation is ambivalent: it is generally easy to find a community (Russian, sometimes English-speaking), but certain groups are heavily monitored when they step outside their traditional ethnic base, especially if they engage in visible proselytism.
Other religions and revival of ancient beliefs
Behind the two major pillars of Islam and Christianity, Kazakhstan hosts a wealth of religious minorities.
Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Baha’i…
Jewish communities, mostly Russian-speaking Ashkenazi, number between 2,500 and 3,300 people, concentrated in major cities. They have synagogues and schools, and maintain rather cordial relations with the authorities.
Buddhism is present through about two official organizations, one of Korean tradition (Won Buddhism), the other of Tibetan tradition. The 2021 census records over 15,000 Buddhists, notably among the Korean community.
The Hindu community in France is very small, numbering only a few hundred people. It is mainly composed of members of the ISKCON movement (Hare Krishna) and the Indian diaspora. Although they have officially registered places of worship, some groups, like the Hare Krishna in the past, have encountered difficulties with authorities, particularly regarding land issues.
Baha’is, estimated at a few thousand, were one of the most dynamic communities after independence, even if they remain numerically small.
Tengrism, neo-paganism, and shamanism
More discreet but culturally influential, the revival of Tengrism attracts some intellectuals and identity activists. This ancient steppe religion venerates the “Eternal Sky” (Kök Tengri), considers nature as animated by spirits, and gives a central place to ancestor worship and sacred mountains.
On the ground, this revival manifests itself less through the creation of “Tengrist temples” than through:
The emergence of Tengrism in Central Asia relies on a reinterpretation of traditional practices (such as respect for fires, springs, or sacred trees) presented as “pre-Islamic.” It is also carried by political and academic discourses that make it an identity foundation distinct from Russian Orthodoxy and Middle Eastern Islam. This interest manifests through the revitalization of mythical figures like Korkyt-ata, a founding hero and musician, and through the valorization of sites such as Mount Kazygurt, sometimes associated with stories reminiscent of Noah’s Ark.
There are also currents of Slavic neo-paganism, especially among Russians nostalgic for pre-Christian traditions.
For an expatriate, these practices are not always clearly visible, but they fuel the ambient discourse on the “return to roots” and can explain attachments to certain places or ritual gestures that one might, wrongly, dismiss as folklore.
The legal framework: constraining secularism and religion “under control”
Understanding the religious environment in Kazakhstan requires taking into account a key element: religion is strictly regulated by the state. Freedom of conscience is guaranteed, but the legislature has built a very intrusive system.
A very restrictive law on religion
The 2011 law “on religious activities and religious associations” notably imposes:
– mandatory registration of any religious organization: no legal status, no authorized activity;
– high thresholds for registering a community (at least 50 founding members at the local level, 500 for a regional structure, 5,000 for a national entity);
– mandatory theological expertise of statutes and any religious literature;
– prohibition of activities for unregistered groups;
– administrative sanctions (fines) or even criminal penalties (imprisonment) for activities deemed illegal or for “incitement to religious discord.”
In 2012, a re-registration process reduced the number of recognized religious organizations by about 1,500 units.
Amendments adopted in 2021 added a system of prior “notification” for any religious meeting outside registered premises: organizers must provide the authorities, at least ten working days in advance, with a set of information on the location, topic, and number of participants.
For expats: what you need to know concretely
In practice, this means that:
In Kazakhstan, you are free to practice your religion and wear religious symbols, provided you respect internal regulations (work, school…). To participate in a community, prioritize official and registered structures (e.g., SAMK-affiliated mosques, recognized churches). Be cautious: informal meetings (study groups, prayer circles) in private places, especially if they involve local nationals and the distribution of religious materials, can be seen as undeclared activities. Proselytism is strictly regulated: foreign missionaries must be registered and invited by a recognized association, with annual renewal. Distributing flyers or organizing public meetings without legal status exposes you to controls, or even deportation.
The authorities claim they seek to prevent religious extremism and social division. However, international organizations defending religious freedom criticize these laws as tools limiting plurality. Several emblematic cases (such as the conviction of a Jehovah’s Witness for “incitement to religious discord”) have made an impact.
For an expatriate, the caution is simple: do not confuse personal freedom of conscience with missionary activity, be discreet about proselytism, and always inquire about the legal status of a group before investing time in it.
Society, religion, and cross-cultural perspectives
Kazakhstan likes to present itself as a model of interreligious harmony. There is some truth to this: peaceful coexistence among Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Jews, Buddhists, and others is a national pride. But the smooth image also masks tensions that can surprise a newcomer.
Consensus around “traditional religions”
Hanafi Muslim leaders, Russian Orthodox, Catholics, and Jews generally report a good level of social acceptance. The state sometimes subsidizes the construction of mosques, synagogues, or Orthodox churches, or provides land.
This circle of “legitimate actors” regularly participates in major interfaith meetings, notably the Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions, created in 2003 in Astana. This highly publicized forum, held every three or four years, brings together delegations from many countries, from the Pope to grand imams, and serves as a showcase for Kazakh diplomacy.
Distrust of “newcomers”
In contrast, groups considered non-traditional often face:
Some religious groups face hostile media campaigns labeling them as “sects,” repeated administrative checks, and social pressures on their members, such as family breakdowns or workplace discrimination.
Conversions to Evangelical Christianity by people from Muslim families are particularly frowned upon in some circles. NGOs like Open Doors report that these converts sometimes experience pressure from relatives, or even violence.
The reverse also exists: in some highly secularized Russian-speaking environments, a visible return to Islam (wearing the hijab, diligent practice) causes misunderstandings.
For the expatriate, it is important to know that:
Discussing religion, especially conversion, can be a sensitive topic. Asking overly direct questions about a colleague’s personal practice may make them uncomfortable. In a professional environment, it is generally advisable to avoid religious debates unless your interlocutors bring up the subject themselves.
Discrimination and occasional tensions
Official surveys indicate that nearly four out of ten people have, at some point, felt they have experienced a form of religion-related discrimination, ranging from hostile comments on social media to restricted access to education due to wearing the hijab.
Furthermore, the legislation severely punishes “incitement to religious hatred” or blasphemy. Individuals have been convicted for online posts, unauthorized prayer meetings, or remarks made in private circles that were filmed.
For an expatriate, the basic rule is simple: avoid caricatures, dubious jokes, or aggressive remarks targeting a religion, even in what you think is an informal setting. The line between discussion and “incitement” can be interpreted broadly by the authorities.
Beyond law and major institutions, religion manifests itself mainly in everyday gestures: how to receive guests, table manners, family rituals, dress codes in certain places. Adapting to these is often more important than knowing theological subtleties.
“Sacred” hospitality
Kazakh culture considers the guest as a “messenger of God.” This dimension, nourished by Islam but also by older traditions, explains the extraordinary generosity of many households.
Concretely, if you are invited to a Kazakhstani home:
– you will always be offered tea, accompanied by bread, sweets, and fruits;
– refusing without a solid reason is frowned upon;
– the best pieces of meat will be reserved for you, especially if you are the guest of honor;
– you may be asked to say a few words, sing a song, or play a piece (tradition of konakkade).
In some contexts, a boiled sheep’s head will be brought out and offered to the most important guest. They must cut off a few symbolic parts and distribute them (ear to a child to wish them obedience, tongue to a young person for eloquence, etc.). Accepting this ritual, even by explaining that you eat little meat, is a gesture of respect.
Blessing rituals
At the end of a meal or ceremony, an elder often pronounces a poetic blessing (bata). Participants then rub their hands over their face, palms upward then brought back towards themselves, as a sign of acceptance of the prayer. This gesture, which appears very religious, is part of the “cultural reflexes,” even among people who are not very observant.
Table manners, between tradition and Islam
Many table taboos combine Islamic heritage and local customs:
Pork is rarely consumed in Muslim households, although it is available in supermarkets. It is considered disrespectful to place bread upside down. The main dish, often shared from the center of the table, serves to strengthen community bonds. In conservative circles, avoid drinking alcohol in front of elders, even if vodka is part of daily life for a segment of the population.
Tea plays an almost ritual role. Cups are not always filled to the brim: leaving room to add very hot tea is a sign of attention. Repeatedly refusing tea can be perceived as a refusal of relationship.
Clothing and modesty codes
In major cities like Astana or Almaty, Western clothing is the norm. Wearing the veil varies greatly from one neighborhood to another. Generally:
In a professional setting, sober attire (shirt, pants, skirt not too short) is sufficient. To visit a mosque or an Orthodox church, it is recommended for women to cover their hair with a scarf and wear clothing that covers arms and legs. In villages or within traditional families, avoid very low-cut tops, very short shorts, or tight-fitting clothes.
School regulations regarding religious clothing have been debated, especially concerning the hijab. A draft law aiming to ban religious clothing in schools has been prepared but sparked lively discussions.
Visits to places of worship
Many mosques and churches are open to non-believing visitors, provided certain rules are respected:
– remove your shoes before entering the prayer hall of a mosque;
– avoid visits during the main Friday prayer;
– do not step in front of someone who is praying;
– ask before taking photos, and avoid filming people in devotion without their consent.
Some iconic mosques, like the Grand Mosque of Astana or Hazrat Sultan, have minarets or areas open to the public with tourist guidance.
Work, business, and religion: where are the red lines?
The Kazakhstani business world operates within a framework that is officially neutral regarding religion. The law prohibits prayer in the workplace in certain configurations, even if in practice some informal accommodations sometimes exist.
Hierarchy, time, and public holidays
Professional culture is hierarchical: the opinion of elders or superiors often weighs more than formal procedures. This hierarchy is linked to both the Soviet legacy, nomadic tradition, and a strong vision of social order.
Among the public holidays with a religious dimension, two deserve special attention for scheduling your agendas.
| Holiday | Dominant tradition | Status in calendar |
|---|---|---|
| Kurban Ait (Eid al-Adha) | Sunni Islam | National public holiday |
| Orthodox Christmas | Orthodox Christianity | National public holiday |
Add to these important national holidays (New Year, Nauryz, Constitution Day, Independence Day…) which have no direct religious content, but during which references to nomadic roots, Islam, or Christianity are frequent.
Corporate life and religious diversity
In large companies, especially international ones, training in “cultural sensitivity” is developing. These aim to:
– explain local social norms (hospitality, respect for elders, role of the family);
– prevent religious discrimination;
– provide keys to managing requests for schedule adjustments during Ramadan or for Friday prayer.
For an expatriate manager, it is advisable to understand the local culture well and communication differences. It is also important to develop a professional network on the ground and to be attentive to the expectations of the local team. Good intercultural training can also help optimize work relationships and avoid misunderstandings.
– not to systematically exclude religious references from informal discussions: for some employees, mentioning a pilgrimage, a religious holiday, or a family blessing is part of ordinary conversation;
– to be clear about what the company allows or does not allow (wearing religious symbols, breaks for prayer, display in offices), referring to local legislation;
– to avoid scheduling important meetings during major festive periods for the teams most concerned.
How to approach religion in your personal relationships
Finally, the delicate question: how to talk – or not talk – about religion with your Kazakhstani colleagues, neighbors, and friends?
Follow the lead, without pushing
A simple rule: let your interlocutors set the level of intimacy. If you are asked about your beliefs, answer honestly but without trying to convince. If you are invited to a wedding with a religious ritual, participate respectfully, even if you do not spiritually adhere.
In Kazakhstan, it is common for individuals to combine several religious registers (such as identifying as Muslim or Christian while rarely attending places of worship, but respecting dietary taboos or family festivities). It is essential not to judge what might seem like “inconsistencies.”
Topics to handle with caution
Certain topics intersect religion and politics and should be approached with tact, or even avoided if you do not know your interlocutors well:
– the issue of “sects” and “dangerous cults”;
– the influence of the Moscow Patriarchate and debates around Ukraine;
– anti-terrorism laws and their effects on conservative Muslims;
– tensions around the veil, especially in schools.
On the other hand, mentioning major holidays (Nauryz, Eid, Christmas), asking about a local pilgrimage, or showing interest in the meaning of a family ritual is often very appreciated.
Kazakhstan offers a unique case: an officially secular state, but very structured around a national Islam and a powerful Orthodox Church, with strict control over other religious currents. For the expatriate, the key is not to memorize all the statistics, but to understand a few deep logics:
Religion, a matter of faith and identity, is embedded in family and national lineage. Practices are modulated by nomadic traditions, pre-Islamic beliefs, and the Soviet legacy. The state tolerates diversity within a strict framework: it is not advisable to play an active role in unsupervised religious activities. Politeness, modesty, and respectful curiosity are essential for navigating this fabric of codes blending blessings, songs, rituals, and references to God.
By taking the time to observe, ask simple questions, and respect sensitivities, you will discover that beyond laws and institutions, Kazakhstani religiosity is lived primarily through gestures of hospitality, remembrance of ancestors, and a quest for social peace. That is where, for an expatriate, the true gateway to the country’s culture lies.
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Cyril Jarnias is an independent expert in international wealth management with over 20 years of experience. As an expatriate himself, he is dedicated to helping individuals and business leaders build, protect, and pass on their wealth with complete peace of mind.
On his website, cyriljarnias.com, he shares his expertise on international real estate, offshore company formation, and expatriation.
Thanks to his expertise, he offers sound advice to optimize his clients' wealth management. Cyril Jarnias is also recognized for his appearances in many prestigious media outlets such as BFM Business, les Français de l’étranger, Le Figaro, Les Echos, and Mieux vivre votre argent, where he shares his knowledge and know-how in wealth management.
